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Egypt
| A land of civilization since the most ancient times, with a long illustrious history, that has been an eyewitness to epoch-making events down the ages. A land that has influenced and been influenced by many different cultures but has never been conquered. Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East, located in the north east angle of Africa and encroaches on Asia in the Sinai Peninsula. The great majority of its estimated 82 million live near the banks of the Nile River, in an area of about 40,000 square kilometers, where the only arable agricultural land is found. The large areas of the Sahara Desert are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with the majority spread across the densely-populated centers of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta. |
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Geography
| At 1,001,450 square kilometers, Egypt is the world's 38th-largest country. In terms of land area, it is approximately the same size as all of Central America, twice the size of France, four times the size of the United Kingdom, and the combined size of the US states of Texas and California. Nevertheless, due to the aridity of Egypt's climate, population centers are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that approximately 99% of the population uses only about 5.5% of the total land area. The Coastline of Alexandria, Egypt's second largest city, Egypt is bordered by Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. |  |
| Egypt's important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: a transcontinental nation, it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, which in turn is traversed by a navigable waterway (the Suez Canal) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean via the Red Sea. The Nile River in Egypt, apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is a desert. Egypt includes parts of the Sahara Desert and of the Libyan Desert. These deserts were referred to as the "red land" in ancient Egypt, and they protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from western threats. |
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Climate
| Egypt does not receive much rainfall except in the winter months. South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around 2 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as 410 mm (16 in), with most of the rainfall between October and March. Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north coastal cities such as Damietta, Baltim, Sidi Barrany, etc. and rarely in Alexandria, frost is also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt. Temperatures average between 80 °F (27 °C) and 90 °F (32 °C) in summer, and up to 109 °F (43 °C) on the Red Sea coast. Temperatures average between 55 °F (13 °C) and 70 °F (21 °C) in winter. A steady wind, from the northwest, helps hold down the temperature near the Mediterranean coast. |
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| The Khamaseen is a wind that blows from the south in Egypt in spring, bringing sand and dust, and sometimes raises the temperature in the desert to more than 100 °F (38 °C). Every year, a predictable flooding of the Nile replenishes Egypt's soil. This gives the country consistent harvest throughout the year. Many know this event as The Gift of the Nile. The rise in sea levels due to global warming threatens Egypt's densely populated coastal strip and could have grave consequences for the country's economy, agriculture and industry. Combined with growing demographic pressures, a rise in sea levels could turn millions of Egyptians into environmental refugees by the end of the century, according to climate experts. |
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Economy
| Egypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, and tourism; there are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Saudi Arabia, the Persian Gulf and Europe. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1970 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly-growing population, limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy. The government has struggled to prepare the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investments in communications and physical infrastructure. |
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| Egypt has been receiving U.S. foreign aid (since 1979, an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Its main revenues however come from tourism as well as traffic that go through the Suez Canal. Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, natural gas, and hydro power. Substantial coal deposits are in the north-east Sinai, and are mined at the rate of about 600,000 tones per year. Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, the Gulf of Suez, and the Nile Delta. |
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| Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at 1,940 cubic kilometers, and LNG is exported to many countries. Economic conditions have started to improve considerably after a period of stagnation from the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government, as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. Some major economic reforms taken by the new government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. Tourists ride in traditional Nile boats. FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) into Egypt has increased considerably in the past few years due to the recent economic liberalization measures. |
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Demographics
| Egypt is the most populated country in the Middle East and the third most populous on the African continent, with an estimated 75 million people (as of mid-2008). Egypt's population was estimated at 3 million when Napoleon invaded the country. Almost all the population is concentrated along the banks of the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Approximately 90% of the population adheres to Islam and most of the remainder to Christianity, primarily the Coptic Orthodox denomination. Apart from religious affiliation, Egyptians can be divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centers and the fellahin or farmers of rural villages. |
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The last 40 years have seen a rapid increase in population due to medical advances and massive increase in agricultural productivity, made by the Green Revolution. Egyptians are by far the largest ethnic group in Egypt at 98% of the total population. Ethnic minorities include the Bedouin Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the Sinai Peninsula, the Berber-speaking Siwis (Amazigh) of the Siwa Oasis, and the ancient Nubian communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribal communities of Beja concentrated in the south-eastern-most corner of the country, and a number of Dom clans mostly in the Nile Delta and Faiyum who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanization increases. |
Religion
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Since the earliest times Egypt has been a crossroads of three of the world’s major religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. It once gave sanctuary to a great number of Jews who came south and settled in this rich and fertile land to escape strife and hardship in their native land, it has also long been home to one of the oldest Christian communities in the world, whose members still live side by side with their Muslim brethren to this day. Religion in Egypt controls many aspects of social life and is endorsed by law. Egypt is predominantly Muslim, with Muslims comprising about 90% of a population of around 80 million Egyptians. Almost the entireties of Egypt’s Muslims are Sunnis. |
| A significant number of Muslim Egyptians also follow native Sufi orders, and there is a minority of Shi'a. Most of the non-Muslims in Egypt are Christians. Christians represent around 10% of the population and are the largest Christian community in the Middle East. About 90% of Christians in Egypt belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Coptic Evangelical Church and various Coptic Protestant denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria. In Egypt, Muslims and Christians live as neighbors; they share a common history and national identity. |
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| They also share the same ethnicity, race, culture, and language. Millions of Egyptians follow the Christian faith as members of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. Religion plays a central role in most Egyptians' lives; The Adhan (Islamic call to prayer) that is heard five times a day has the informal effect of regulating the pace of everything from business to media and entertainment. Cairo is famous for its numerous mosque minarets and is justifiably dubbed "the city of 1,000 minarets", with a significant number of church towers. |
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History
| From the very dawn of history, Egypt has been seen as an Earthly Paradise, owing to its magnificent climate and the richly fertile soil deposited by the annual flooding of the Nile in the Valley and Delta. From the earliest times, the country has had many names in many different languages. Due to the color of its rich soil, it was alternately referred to by its own native inhabitants as “Kemet”, meaning “Black Land”, or as “Red Land” because the redness of the desert which comprises most of the entire area of Egypt. |
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Pharaonic Era
| In 3000 BC, the known history of Egypt began when King Menes united Upper and Lower Egypt, originally two separate Kingdoms. Afterward, the Pharaoh came to be known as “Lord of the two Lands”. Pharaonic history comprises the 2700 years after this union and can be divided into the Old, Middle and New Kingdom. Historians have disagreed about the length of each epoch, although they agree that there were several transitional periods between these epochs. During that time Egypt experienced a state of total chaos and disorder until a new pharaoh took control of the country. |
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| The great white crown known as ‘Hedjet’ represented the Lotus flower, the symbol of Upper Egypt. Its patron goddess was the vulture goddess Nekhbet of Nekheb. Lower Egypt had the red crown known as the ‘Deshret’ which symbolized the papyrus plant. Its patron goddess was cobra goddess Wadjet of Buto. The union of the two Lands of Upper and Lower Egypt were also represented by the ‘Nebty’ meaning ‘two ladies’; the cobra goddess Wadjet and the vulture goddess Nekhbet. Together they symbolized the unity and duality of the Egyptian world. Wadjet was usually portrayed as a rearing cobra. |
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Old Kingdom or Pyramid Era (2650-2150 BC)
| The Old Kingdom was an important phase in Egypt’s political and culture development; it lasted until approximately 2150 BC. Almost five centuries of continuous progress set the foundations of one of the most influential cultures of ancient world. Egypt enjoyed stability, security, and peace. To secure the unity of Egypt, Menes established as capital the City of Memphis near the Delta, about 25 kilometers south of modern Cairo. This period was characterized by strong centralized government as well as a divine kingship. Most of the executive power was in the hands of the pharaoh who oversaw the construction of all monuments and claimed divine rule over his people. During this era, the constructions of pyramids became more ambitious to reflect to reflect the power of the Pharaoh himself which was the reason that it is known as the Pyramid Age. |
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| The most remarkable change is the transition from the step to the better known smooth-sided pyramid. This transition was not only the result of improved technical skills, but also because of religious beliefs and concepts which assigned primacy to the sun over other stars. The Step Pyramid symbolized a staircase to the stars but the smooth-faced pyramid was seen by the contrast as a solar symbol. King Djoser built the step pyramid at Saqqara and was the first and most celebrated king of the 3rd Dynasty. The later Pyramids of Giza: Cheops, Chephren and Myncerinos represented the peak of achievement in the architectural field. |
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| Egyptian civilization flourished in this period; with crafts and skills of all kinds reaching a high level of sophistication. Hieroglyphics in particular reached a very high level of sophistication. Artists and craftsmen became increasingly adept at producing the most exquisite objects of art for the royal family and the members of the ruling elite. The intricate decoration of the private tombs nest to the royal pyramids represents a rich source of information about daily life in the age of the pyramids. The last ruler of the 5th Dynasty, Unas introduced another innovation; his pyramid was the first to be decorated with texts, which is called ‘Pyramid Texts’. These texts depict the fate of the king in the after life, when he takes his place among the gods and among the stars. Towards the end of the period, centralized power disintegrated and the country fell into rapid decline. This marked the beginning of the Middle Kingdom. |
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Middle Kingdom or Feudal Age (2034-1783 BC)
| The Middle Kingdom endured for about 500 years until 1783BC. As the kings of Egypt slowly reasserted the authority of the monarchy. Egypt grew again in wealth and population consisted of non-Egyptians who had immigrated to the Nile Valley in order to enjoy greater prosperity. There were no such thing as naturalization in Ancient Egypt or the Middle East; no matter where one lived, one always belonged to the original tribe or nation. If one immigrated to Egypt, one wouldn’t become an Egyptian but remain a “sojourner” or foreigner. The life of a foreigner in Egypt offered a range of possibilities, sometimes foreigners had fewer privileges and rights but more often they were allowed to form their own communities with their own leaders and laws. |
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| They were required only to pay taxes and tariffs. The non-naturalization of foreigners greatly influenced the course of Egyptian history in the Middle Kingdom. As their numbers increased, they settled in increasingly large communities and their leaders became king in their own right. The power of these foreigners grew as rapidly as their numbers until the power of the Egyptian monarch fell into oblivion. Egyptian rule extended into Nubia and the Nubians became subjects of the Middle Kingdom later, a power struggle among the principalities undermined the rule of the Pharaohs and the civilization fell prey to invaders from Palestine ending what is known as the Middle Kingdom. |
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New Kingdom or Golden Age (1550-945 BC)
| By 1550 BC, the New Kingdom had been established and the Egyptians managed to expel their foreign rulers. This was the Golden Age of the Pharaohs which saw the construction of the great majority of the monuments and the temples which can still be seen today. Most buildings at Luxor which was still the capital and many structures in Memphis later re-instated as a secondary capital and seat of administrative affairs, date from this age. The New Kingdom saw Egypt’s greatest expansion. First, into Upper Nubia (now part of Sudan) initiated by Tuthmosis I, then thirteen years later into Syria and Asia Minor under the rule of Tuthmosis III. A significant change during this period was that the final resting place of the Pharaoh’s mummy was no longer deep within the core of a colossal pyramid but in the well hidden tomb in the Valley of the Kings in Thebes. Tuthmosis I was the first pharaoh to be buried there. |
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| The 19th Dynasty saw war raging on Egypt’s borders and the Pharaohs Ramses I, Seti I, and Ramses II distinguished themselves on the battlefield at the head of their armies, showing that they were superb generals as well as kings by divine right. Temples proliferated, but war with Libyans and the Hittites tested Egyptian unity and stability. The Egyptian Empire has begun to shrink by the reign of Ramses III (1194-1163)the Libyans seized the Delta and the Nubians managed to take control of Thebes. An invasion by the Assyrians in 671 BC was followed by another by the Persians in 525 BC. Persians rule lasted 190 years, until Alexander the great arrived on the scene. |
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Roman and Greek Era
The Greeks recognized the uniqueness of Egypt. The historian Herodotus who visited the Nile Valley in the 5th century BC, was filled with astonishment with what he saw and wrote as follow: “Just as the Egyptians have a climate peculiar to themselves and their river is different in its nature from all other rivers, so they have made themselves customs and laws of a kind contrary to those of all other men.” Of the native customs he describes, none were stranger in his eyes or more different from Greek religious practice than the cults of the various gods and goddess and their animal counterparts. These rites and beliefs he found everywhere and concluded that the Egyptians were religious beyond measure more than any other nation.
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Alexander was greeted quite warmly by the Egyptians who felt oppressed under the Persians. He had the priests of Memphis declare him Pharaoh and he founded a new city on the north cost, Alexandria to facilitate sea trade with Greece. On his death, one of his generals, Ptolemy, assumed leadership and the dynasty of the Ptolemy lasted for 300 years. It ended with Cleopatra and the seizure power by the Romans.
In 30 BC, Egypt was conquered by the Romans and was therefore relegated to a mere a province in their empire. However, due to its advantageous geographical position, the fertility of its soil and the high level of culture and urban development, Egypt was regarded as the most precious property of the Roman Empire. During this period, agriculture and industry, particularly glass manufacturing flourished in Egypt. |
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Egypt was especially known for the art of glass blowing, a virtual monopoly in paper production as well as for perfumes, cosmetics, and fine linen fabrics.
As the new Egyptian capital, Alexandria became the largest trading and industrial center in the eastern Mediterranean and second only to Rome itself in the Roman Empire, the University of Alexandria established itself as a center of scientific research and a seat of learning for scholars from all parts of the world, during the roman era in Egypt.
The country did not develop much under Roman rule; the Romans simply made access to the rest of their empire easier by constructing ports on the Red Sea and building a few fortresses with Alexandria as their base. They decided to outlaw the cults of the various gods and goddesses of the Pharaonic Era and during this time many Egyptians converted to Christianity which was introduced to Egypt in about 40 AD. |
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The Arab Conquest
In 642 AD the Arab conquest brought Islam to Egypt. The new invaders set up a base at Fustat, near the roman fortress of Babylon (the remains of which now support the old Cairo’s Hanging Church). The Umayyad, from Syria invaded in 661 AD and held power until 750 AD when the Abbasids came from Iraq and took control, ruling over 200 years. Their legacy can be seen in the beautiful Ibn Toulon Mosque in Islamic Cairo, Built in Typically Iraqi style.
The Fatimids swept to power in 969 AD having founded their capital to the north of Fustat; they set about building a wall around the medieval city. This was the beginning of what is now Cairo and has remained the capital of Egypt ever since. |
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| Evidence of the wall is still visible today at Bab Zuweila, Bab el Nasr, and Bab el Fat’h. Al Azhar University and its Mosque were also built during the Fatimids Era. The Fatimids, who were Shiite Muslims held themselves aloof from the predominantly Sunni local populace which meant that they were not well liked by most of the local inhabitants. This, together with the invasion of Crusaders from Europe advancing into the Delta resulted in the overthrow of the Fatimids. They had appealed for help from the Seljuk in Syria to fight off the advancing Europe armies. Once in Cairo, the Seljuk captured the city as well as the whole country and restored Sunni rule in Egypt. Their champion and first leader was Salah El Din who established the Ayubbid dynasty in Egypt. His greatest monument is the Citadel which was built in 1176 to fortify the city against further attacks by Crusaders. |
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| Ayubbid rule lasted only until 1250 AD when the Mamluks seized power. They were a formidable fighting force for 267 years and held Cairo in an iron grip. The Mamluk era saw Egypt seize control of Palestine and Syria. This period also saw the construction of some of Cairo’s most beautiful Islamic buildings such as the mosque of Sultan Hassan, Mu’ayyad, and Al Ghouri. Cairo’s northern cemetery also hosts some fine examples of Mamluk architecture. The Fortress of Qaitbay, built on the ruins of the Pharos of Alexandria, and which is featured on the back of Egypt’s one-pound note is another example of the Mamluk style. |
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| In the early 16th century, the Turks who had grown very powerful had ambitions to unify the Muslim world. In 1516, the Mamluks faced the Turkish armies in Syria where their last general Al Ghouri and his troops were defeated. Selim I, the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, became ruler of Egypt. Egypt declined as the great financial and cultural center it had been under the Mamluk and Constantinople became the new center of power. The Ottoman Empire held Egypt for a good 280 years until Napoleon and his army came in 1798. |
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French Occupation
Napoleon was keen to strike a blow at the British by controlling land and sea routes to India. Whilst in Egypt, he radically overhauled bureaucratic procedures and changed the system of taxation. At the same time, his scientists and artists were put to work studying Egyptian ‘flora’, ‘fauna’, ‘corps’ and ‘crafts’. This resulted in the famous “Description de L’Egypte” which was 24 volumes of pictures and analysis of their findings. In 1801, Napoleon was forced to leave Egypt; the French fleet had been destroyed and the British Navy under Admiral Nelson and the British and Turkish armies were fighting as allies.
After the Turkish rule had been restored, Mohamed Ali became “Pasha” of Egypt. |
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| The title meant he should have been merely a governor the Sultan of Constantinople, but he was an extremely able to force personality and the Turkish Sultanate was too weak to challenge him. Mohamed Ali oversaw victorious battles which put Egypt firmly in control of the majority of the Ottoman Empire. He also pushed Egypt forward by instituting radical reforms of bureaucracy and initiated the cultivation of cotton for its value as a cash crop which Egypt still exports in huge quantities today. Foreigners poured into the country in this rich new Egypt and the country prospered and developed rapidly. Mohamed Ali left behind legacy of laws and a more developed country. Cairo’s skyline is still dominated in the east by a huge Turkish style Mosque at the Citadel which is named after him. |
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British Occupation
In 1882 the British entered Egypt primarily to secure the Suez Canal for British use. The descendants of Mohamed Ali were allowed symbolic power, but all real power belonged to the British. Lord Cromer was the man responsible for the consolidation of British rule in Cairo. He became the principle agent of British power in Egypt in 1883 and ruled Egypt for 24 years. Before this, he had been in control of the Public Debt in Cairo as British Commissioner. He was responsible for keeping the French, Belgians, and Italians away from the Nile. Under Cromer, Cairo was a city filled with political and social intrigue.
After World War I, the U.S. President, Woodrow Wilson, encouraged Egyptian hopes of independence. |
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| Saad Zaghloul went to the British Residency and demanded that Egypt be given the right to self determination. He was allowed to say his piece and leave, but was arrested a month later and banished to Malta. Egypt revolted at this news, and overnight, Cairo erupted with revolutionary fervor as every town and city was seized by Egyptians. Everything ground to a halt. Trains and trams stopped, no one went to work and strikes began. Eight British soldiers were killed on the 18th March 1919 while on their way to Cairo. Trenches were dug and the city was barricaded. Many people were killed either in the fighting or executed for killing British officers. The resident minister was replaced by General Allenby who immediately had Zaghloul released from Malta. |
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| Allenby was criticized for this as being too conciliatory but this probably saved Egypt from Britain more than anything else. He declared martial law and stopped the strikes one by one. Zaghloul had been released from Malta, but was not allowed to return to Egypt immediately. He journeyed to Paris seeking help from France in the struggle for Egypt’s independence. On 20th April 1919, The United States acknowledge Britain’s mandate to govern Egypt. This all but ended Egyptian hopes of ever being free. |
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| The British still occupied Egypt by the end of World War II, even though a symbolic kind of sovereignty with king Farouk as Head of state had been granted. On 26th January 1952 was “Black Saturday”. It saw a huge revolt in Cairo which resulted in the destruction and burning of foreign-owned shops. The days of British control in Egypt were numbered and on 26th July, King Farouk abdicated and General Mohamed Naguib took up the reins of government. |
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Egyptian Revolution
Mohamed Naguib became the first president and started a period of nationalization during which all foreign-owned shops were returned to Egyptian hands. Gamal Abdul Nasser succeeded Naguib as president in 1954 and under his leadership, there was a host of achievement including the enactment of the first agrarian law reform and the first five years plan for socio-economic development in the history of Egypt.
Industry and production were rapidly developed. The Aswan high Dam was constructed between 1960 and 1970. Outstanding progress was also made in the fields of education, health, agriculture, and construction. |
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| In the domain of foreign policy, Egypt adopted a policy of positive neutrality and encouraged national liberation movements. It was seen as a new golden age in Egyptian history. Cognizant from the beginning’s of Egypt’s leading role in the Arab world, its growing military power and untiring defense of the Palestine case in the world forums, Israel launched a treacherous assault on 5th June 1967 against Egypt, Syria and Jordan, resulting in the Israel occupation of Sinai, the Golan Heights and the west Bank of Jordan. The Egyptian army valiantly stood its ground in what eventually became a long war of attrition, as Israeli forces continued to pound the cities of Port Said, Ismaleya, and Suez. It was at this time, on 28th September 1970, that the leader of July Revolution, Gamal Abdul Nasser passed away. |
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| Anwar El-Sadat who succeeded Nasser pressed on with the task of mobilizing all national resources for the liberation of the occupied territory. On the 6th October 1973, both Egyptian and Syrian armies simultaneously launched a battle to liberate these Arab lands from Israeli occupation. A few hours after launching their attack, the Egyptian army victoriously crossed to the east bank of the Suez Canal where the Egyptian banner proudly raised aloft. |
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| In the October war, Egyptian forces won a resounding victory. This prompted President Anwar El-Sadat to contemplate a radical settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict and the establishment of a just and lasting peace in the Middle East. There then ensued the challenging task of negotiating terms with Israel, but agreement was finally reached and a peace treaty signed in 1979. It was perhaps because some viewed this as a betrayal that Sadat was assassinated in 1981. The country has been governed since then by his successor, President Mohamed Hosni Mubarak |
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